Sources and Methods

Section Divider:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC, 2018. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

World Health Organization. Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer. Available from URL: https://www.who.int/cancer/childhood-cancer/en/ [accessed 17 June, 2019].

The Burden of Cancer

*Includes non-melanoma skin cancers.

Quote:
Atun R, Cavalli F. The global fight against cancer: challenges and opportunities. Lancet. 2018;391:412–413.

Cancer as a leading cause of premature death: World Health Organization. Global Health Estimates 2016: Deaths by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2016. Geneva: WHO, 2018.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global Cancer Statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.3322/caac.21492.

Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, et al. Estimating the global cancer incidence and mortality in 2018: GLOBOCAN sources and methods. Int J Cancer. 2018 Oct 23. doi: 10.1002/ijc.31937.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC, 2018. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

World Health Organization. Global Health Estimates 2016: Deaths by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2016. 2018.

Map:
World Health Organization. Global Health Estimates 2016: Deaths by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2016. 2018.

Figures 1-4:
Estimates include non-melanoma skin cancers.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC, 2018. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Lung Cancer

Cause of lung cancer deaths:
The GBD Risk Factor Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392(10159):1923–94.

Access creates progress:
US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2014.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018; 68(6):394–424.

Guo Y, Zeng H, Zheng R, et al. The burden of lung cancer mortality attributable to fine particles in China. Sci Total Environ. 2017;579:1460–6.

Jemal A, Miller KD, Ma J, et al. Higher lung cancer incidence in young women than young men in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(21): 1999–2009.

Lortet-Tieulent J, Soerjomataram I, Ferlay J, Rutherford M, Weiderpass E, Bray F. International trends in lung cancer incidence by histological subtype: adenocarcinoma stabilizing in men but still increasing in women. Lung Cancer. 2014;84(1):13–22.

Soerjomataram I, Shield K, Marant-Micallef C, et al. Cancers related to lifestyle and environmental factors in France in 2015. Eur J Cancer. 2018;105:103–13.

The GBD Risk Factor Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392(10159):1923–94.

Thun M, Peto R, Boreham J, Lopez AD. Stages of the cigarette epidemic on entering its second century. Tob Control. 2012;21(2):96–101.

Wang JB, Fan YG, Jiang Y, et al. Attributable causes of lung cancer incidence and mortality in China. Thorac Cancer. 2011;2(4):156–63.

Map and Figure 1:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al.. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Figure 2:
Death rates: US Mortality Volumes 1930 to 1959, US Mortality Data 1960 to 2015, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Cigarette consumption: 1900–1999: US Department of Agriculture; 2000–2015: Wang, TW et al. (2016). “Consumption of Combustible and Smokeless Tobacco – United States, 2000-2015.” MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 65(48): 1357–1363.

Figure 3:
Rates smoothed using 5-year average.

World Health Organization Cancer Mortality Database, http://www-dep.iarc.fr/WHOdb/WHOdb.htm

Figure 4:
ibid.

Figure 5:
France: Soerjomataram I, Shield K, Marant-Micallef C, et al. Cancers related to lifestyle and environmental factors in France in 2015. Eur J Cancer. 2018;105:103–13.

China, air pollution: Guo Y, Zeng H, Zheng R, et al. The burden of lung cancer mortality attributable to fine particles in China. Sci Total Environ. 2017;579:1460–6.

China, smoking: Wang JB, Fan YG, Jiang Y, et al. Attributable causes of lung cancer incidence and mortality in China. Thorac Cancer. 2011;2(4):156–63.

Breast Cancer

Access creates progress:
Lauby-Secretan B, Scoccianti C, Loomis D, et al. Breast-cancer screening – viewpoint of the IARC Working Group. New Engl J Med. 2015;372:2353–2358.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018; 68(6): 394–424.

Carioli G, Malvezzi M, Rodriguez T, Bertuccio P, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Trends and predictions to 2020 in breast cancer mortality in Europe. Breast. 2017; 36: 89–95.

Carioli G, Malvezzi M, Rodriguez T, Bertuccio P, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Trends and predictions to 2020 in breast cancer mortality: Americas and Australasia. Breast. 2018; 37: 163–9.

Torre LA, Islami F, Siegel RL, Ward EM, Jemal A. Global Cancer in Women: Burden and Trends. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2017; 26(4): 444–57.

Verdial FC, Etzioni R, Duggan C, Anderson BO. Demographic changes in breast cancer incidence, stage at diagnosis and age associated with population-based mammographic screening. J Surg Oncol. 2017; 115(5): 517–22.

Map and Figures 1 and 2:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today

Figure 3:
Five-year moving average.

Ferlay J, Colombet M and Bray F. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, CI5plus: IARC CancerBase No. 9 [Internet]. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2018. Available from: http://ci5.iarc.fr.

Figure 4:
Five-year moving average.

World Health Organization Cancer Mortality Database, http://www-dep.iarc.fr/WHOdb/WHOdb.htm.

Cancer in Children

Childhood cancer survivors:
Phillips SM, Padgett LS, Leisenring WM, et al. Survivors of childhood cancer in the United States: prevalence and burden of morbidity. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2015;24(4):653–63.

Access creates progress:
Gelband H,Jha P, Sankaranarayanan R, Horton S, eds. 2015. Disease Control Priorities, third edition. Volume 3, Cancer. Chapter 7: Treating childhood cancer in low- and middle-income countries. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Text:
Amitay EL. Breastfeeding and Childhood Leukemia Incidence: A Meta-analysis and Systematic Review. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(6):e151025.

Bonaventure A, Harewood R, Stiller CA, et al. Worldwide comparison of survival from childhood leukaemia for 1995-2009, by subtype, age, and sex (CONCORD-2): a population-based study of individual data for 89 828 children from 198 registries in 53 countries. Lancet Haematol. 2017;4(5):e202-e17.

Braganza MZ, Kitahara CM, Berrington de González A, Inskip PD, Johnson KJ, Rajaraman P. Ionizing radiation and the risk of brain and central nervous system tumors: a systematic review. Neuro-Oncology. 2012;14(11):1316–24.

Cantarella CD, Ragusa D, Giammanco M, Tosi S. Folate deficiency as predisposing factor for childhood leukaemia: a review of the literature. Genes Nutr. 2017;12:14.

Caughey RW, Michels KB. Birth weight and childhood leukemia: a meta-analysis and review of the current evidence. Int J Cancer. 2009;124(11):2658–70.

Chiavarini M, Naldini G, Fabiani R. Maternal folate intake and risk of childhood brain and spinal cord tumors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroepidemiology. 2018;51(1–2):82-95.

Dahlhaus A, Prengel P, Spector L, Pieper D. Birth weight and subsequent risk of childhood primary brain tumors: An updated meta-analysis. Pediatric Blood & Cancer. 2017;64(5).

Howlader NN, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. (eds.). SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2014. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute; 2017.

Phillips SM, Padgett LS, Leisenring WM, et al. Survivors of childhood cancer in the United States: prevalence and burden of morbidity. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers Prev. 2015;24(4):653–63.

Ripperger T, Bielack SS, Borkhardt A, et al. Childhood cancer predisposition syndromes-A concise review and recommendations by the Cancer Predisposition Working Group of the Society for Pediatric Oncology and Hematology. Am J Med Genet A. 2017;173(4):1017–37.

Steliarova-Foucher E, Colombet M, Ries LAG, et al. International Incidence of Childhood Cancer, Volume III (electronic version). Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2017. Available from: http://iicc.iarc.fr/results/.

Steliarova-Foucher E, Colombet M, Ries LAG, et al. International incidence of childhood cancer, 2001–10: a population-based registry study. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(6):719–31.

Steliarova-Foucher E, Fidler MM, Colombet M, et al. Changing geographical patterns and trends in cancer incidence in children and adolescents in Europe, 1991-2010: a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. 2018;19(9):1159-69.

Wang KL, Liu CL, Zhuang Y, Qu HY. Breastfeeding and the risk of childhood Hodgkin lymphoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Asian Pacific J Cancer Prev. 2013;14(8):4733-7.

Whitehead TP, Metayer C, Wiemels JL, Singer AW, Miller MD. Childhood leukemia and primary prevention. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 2016;46(10):317–52.

Figure 1:
Steliarova-Foucher E, Colombet M, Ries LAG, et al. International Incidence of Childhood Cancer, Volume III (electronic version). Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2017. Available from: http://iicc.iarc.fr/results/.

Figure 2 and 3:
Steliarova-Foucher E, Colombet M, Ries LAG, et al. International incidence of childhood cancer, 2001–10: a population-based registry study. Lancet Oncol. Jun 2017;18(6):719–731.

Figure 4:
The estimates for regions were calculated as an average of 5-year age-standardized net survival observed in the most recent available period in all areas with at least 50 cases, weighted by the numbers of cases.

Bonaventure A, Harewood R, Stiller CA, et al. Worldwide comparison of survival from childhood leukaemia for 1995–2009, by subtype, age, and sex (CONCORD-2): a population-based study of individual data for 89 828 children from 198 registries in 53 countries. Lancet Haematol. 2017;4(5):e202-e17.

Figure 5:
ibid.

Human Development Index Transitions

Cancer burden in 2040:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today

Text:
Bray F, Jemal A, Grey N, Ferlay J, Forman D. Global cancer transitions according to the Human Development Index (2008–2030): a population-based study. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13,790-801.

Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68(6):394–424.

Gersten O, Wilmoth JR. The cancer transition in Japan since 1951. Demographic Research. 2002;7:271–306.

Omran AR. The epidemiologic transition: A theory of the epidemiology of population change. Milbank Mem Fund Q. 1971; 49: 509–538.

United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2015. Geneva: United Nations; 2015. 1–10. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2015_human_development_report.pdf.

Map 1 and Figure 1:
HDI: United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Index. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdi.

Cancer rates: Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today

Map 2 and Figure 2:
World Health Organization Global Health Observatory Data Repository, http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.home.

Figures 3 and 4:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today

Cancer in Indigenous Populations

Statistics for indigenous populations:
Personal communication from Dr. Diana Sarfati

Text:
Anderson I, Robson B, Connolly M, et al. Indigenous and tribal peoples’ health (The Lancet-Lowitja Institute Global Collaboration): a population study. Lancet (London, England). 2016;388:131–157.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Cancer in Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer/cancer-in-indigenous-australians/contents/table-of-contents.

Sarfati D, Garvey G, Robson B, et al. Measuring cancer in indigenous populations. Ann Epidemiol. 2018;28:335–342.

Soeberg M, Blakely T, Sarfati D. Trends in ethnic and socioeconomic inequalities in cancer survival, New Zealand, 1991–2004. Cancer Epidemiol. 2015;39:860-862.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples. United Nations Publications; 2015.

Withrow DR, Pole JD, Nishri ED, Tjepkema M, Marrett LD. Cancer Survival Disparities Between First Nation and Non-Aboriginal Adults in Canada: Follow-up of the 1991 Census Mortality Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2017;26:145–151.

Figure 1:
Relative risk compares the risk of disease among people from two different groups. If the relative risk is more than 1.0, then the risk is higher. All relative risks are calculated on the basis of age-standardized rates. Age range varies slightly across studies.

Australia (2011–2015): Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Cancer in Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer/cancer-in-indigenous-australians/contents/table-of-contents. AIHW. Accessed 21 Aug 2018.

United States (2012–2016): Siegel R, Miller K, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2019. CA Cancer J Clin. 2019 Jan;69(1):7–34.

New Zealand (2006–2011): Teng AM, Atkinson J, Disney G, et al. Ethnic inequalities in cancer incidence and mortality: census-linked cohort studies with 87 million years of person-time follow-up. BMC Cancer. 2016;16:755.

Canada (1991–2001, includes stomach and esophageal cancers): Tjepkema M, Wilkins R, Senécal S, Guimond E, Penney C. Mortality of Métis and registered Indian adults in Canada: an 11-year follow-up study. Health Reports. 2009;20:31-51.

Alaska (1999–2009): White MC, Espey DK, Swan J, Wiggins CL, Eheman C, Kaur JS. Disparities in cancer mortality and incidence among American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2014;104 Suppl 3:S377-387.

Figure 2:
Note: Prevalence estimates are taken from different time periods, in different population samples, and using different methods so are not necessarily directly comparable. In all cases, where non-Indigenous prevalence estimates were measured or estimated, prevalence of H. pylori was 2-3 times higher among Indigenous peoples.

Brazil (by age 8–9 years, 2007): Escobar-Pardo ML, Godoy APOd, Machado RS, et al. Prevalência da infecção por Helicobacter pylori e de parasitoses intestinais em crianças do Parque Indígena do Xingu. Jornal de Pediatria. 2011;87:393–398.

New Zealand (Pooled birth cohorts; 1926–1985): McDonald AM, Sarfati D, Baker MG, Blakely T. Trends in Helicobacter pylori infection among Maori, Pacific, and European Birth cohorts in New Zealand. Helicobacter. 2015;20:139–145.

Greenland (22–76 year olds, 1993–94): Milman N, Byg K-E, Andersen LP, Mulvad G, Pedersen HS, Bjerregaard P. Indigenous Greenlanders have a higher seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to Helicobacter pylori than Danes. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2003;62:54–60.

Alaska Natives (prevalence by age 14 years, 1980–86): Parkinson AJ, Gold BD, Bulkow L, et al. High Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori in the Alaska Native Population and Association with Low Serum Ferritin Levels in Young Adults. Clin Diagn Laboratory Immunol. 2000;7:885–888.

Canada (prevalence by age 2 years, 1999): Sinha SK, Martin B, Sargent M, McConnell JP, Bernstein CN. Age at Acquisition of Helicobacter pylori in a Pediatric Canadian First Nations Population. Helicobacter. 2002;7:76–85.

Western Australia (3–75 year olds, 2003–4): Windsor H, Morrow S, Marshall B, Abioye-Kuteyi E, Leber J, Bulsara M. Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori in Indigenous Western Australians: comparison between urban and remote rural populations. Med J Australia. 2005;182:210–213.

Map:
The World Bank. 2015. Indigenous Latin America in the Twenty-First Century. Washington, DC: World Bank. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO.

Anderson I, Robson B, Connolly M, et al. Indigenous and tribal peoples’ health (The Lancet-Lowitja Institute Global Collaboration): a population study. Lancet. 2016;388: 131–157.

Overview of Geographical Diversity

Quote:
Peto J. Cancer epidemiology in the last century and the next decade. Nature. 2001;411: 390–395.

Most commonly diagnosed cancers:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Laversanne M, et al. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents: Inclusion criteria, highlights from Volume X and the global status of cancer registration. Int J Cancer. 2015 Nov 1;137(9):2060–71.

Bray F, Soerjomataram I. Population attributable fractions continue to unmask the power of prevention. Br J Cancer. 2018 Apr;118(8):1031–1032.

Plummer M, de Martel C, Vignat J, Ferlay J, Bray F, Franceschi S. Global burden of cancers attributable to infections in 2012: a synthetic analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2016;4(9):e609–16. (see http://gco.iarc.fr/causes/infections/home)

Map 1 and 2:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Figure 1:
Bray F, Colombet M, Mery L, Piñeros M, Znaor A, Zanetti R and Ferlay J, editors (2017) Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. XI . Lyon: IARC. Available from: http://ci5.iarc.fr.

Sub-Saharan Africa

Global cervical cancer deaths in sub-Saharan Africa:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018; 68(6): 394–424.

Chokunonga E, Borok MZ, Chirenje ZM, Nyakabauc AM, Parkin DM. Trends in the incidence of cancer in the black population of Harare, Zimbabwe 1991–2010. Int J Cancer. 2013; 133(3):721–9.

Jemal A, Bray F, Forman D, et al. Cancer burden in Africa and opportunities for prevention. Cancer. 2012; 118(18): 4372-84.

Somdyala NI, Parkin DM, Sithole N, Bradshaw D. Trends in cancer incidence in rural Eastern Cape Province; South Africa, 1998-2012. Int J Cancer. 2015; 136(5): E470-4.

Wabinga HR, Nambooze S, Amulen PM, Okello C, Mbus L, Parkin DM. Trends in the incidence of cancer in Kampala, Uganda 1991-2010. Int J Cancer. 2014; 135(2): 432-9.

Map and Figures 1, 2 and 4:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Figure 3:
Bray F, Colombet M, Mery L, et al., eds. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. XI. Lyon: IARC. Available from: http://ci5.iarc.fr.

Curado MP, Edwards B, Shin HR, Storm H, Ferlay J, Heanue M, Boyle P, eds. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. IX. IARC Scientific Publications, No. 160. Lyon, IARC; 2007.

Forman D, Bray F, Brewster DH, et al., eds. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. X. IARC Scientific Publication No. 164. Lyon: IARC; 2014.

Latin America and the Caribbean

Bolivia and Chile gallbladder cancer rates:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018; 68(6): 394-424.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Map and Figures 1 and 2:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Figures 3 and 4:
Rates are 5-year smoothed averages.

WHO Cancer Mortality Database, http://www-dep.iarc.fr/WHOdb/WHOdb.htm

Northern America

Endometrial cancers in the US:
Islami F, Sauer AG, Miller KD, et al. Proportion and number of cancer cases and deaths attributable to potentially modifiable factors in the United States in 2014. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68: 31–54.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68.

Copeland G, Green D, Firth R, et al. Cancer in North America: 2011–2015. Volume One: Combined Cancer Incidence for the United States, Canada and North America. Springfield, IL: North American Association of Central Cancer Registries, Inc., 2018.

de Martel C, Ferlay J, Franceschi S, et al. Global burden of cancers attributable to infections in 2008: a review and synthetic analysis. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13: 607–615.

Holford TR, Levy DT, McKay LA, et al. Patterns of birth cohort-specific smoking histories, 1965–2009. Am J Prev Med. 2014;46: e31-37.

Islami F, Sauer AG, Miller KD, et al. Proportion and number of cancer cases and deaths attributable to potentially modifiable factors in the United States in 2014. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68: 31–54.

Perdue DG, Haverkamp D, Perkins C, Daley CM, Provost E. Geographic variation in colorectal cancer incidence and mortality, age of onset, and stage at diagnosis among American Indian and Alaska Native people, 1990–2009. Am J Public Health. 2014;104 Suppl 3: S404-414.

The Global Burden of Disease Obesity Collaborators. Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries over 25 years. N Engl J Med. 2017; 377: 13–27.

Tung J, Politis CE, Chadder J, et al. The north–south and east–west gradient in colorectal cancer risk: a look at the distribution of modifiable risk factors and incidence across Canada. Curr Oncol. 2018; 25: 231–5.

Map and Figure 1:
North American Association of Central Cancer Registries public use dataset US mortality data, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018.

Figure 2:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Figures 3, 4, and 5:
Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Incidence – SEER 9 Regs Research Data with Delay-Adjustment, Malignant Only, Nov 2018 Sub (1975–2016) <Katrina/Rita Population Adjustment> – Linked To County Attributes – Total U.S., 1969–2017 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, released April 2019, based on the November 2018 submission.

Ferlay J, Colombet M and Bray F. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, CI5plus: IARC CancerBase No. 9 [Internet]. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2018. Available from: http://ci5.iarc.fr.

Southern, Eastern, and South-Eastern Asia

Cancer burden contribution of this region:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018; 68(6): 394–424.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Sinha DN, Gupta PC, Ray C, Singh PK. Prevalence of smokeless tobacco use among adults in WHO South-East Asia. Indian J Cancer. 2012 Oct-Dec;49(4):342–6.

Map and Figures 1–3:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Europe

Quote:
Successes and failures of health policy in Europe. Four decades of divergent trends and converging challenges (2013). Mackenbach and Mckee, eds. Open University Press, 2013.

Disproportionate cancer representation among Europeans:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Text:
Arnold M, Karim-Kos HE, Coebergh JW, et al. Recent trends in incidence of five common cancers in 26 European countries since 1988: Analysis of the European Cancer Observatory. Eur J Cancer. 2015;51(9): 1164–87.

Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality patterns in Europe: Estimates for 40 countries and 25 major cancers in 2018. Eur J Cancer. 2018 Nov;103:356–387.

Lortet-Tieulent J, Renteria E, Sharp L, et al. Convergence of decreasing male and increasing female incidence rates in major tobacco-related cancers in Europe in 1988–2010. Eur J Cancer. 2015; 51(9):1144–63.

Map and Figures 1–2:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Figure 3:
Rates have been smoothed using 5 years average.

Danckert B, Ferlay J, Engholm G , et al. NORDCAN: Cancer Incidence, Mortality, Prevalence and Survival in the Nordic Countries, Version 8.2 (26.03.2019). Association of the Nordic Cancer Registries. Danish Cancer Society. Available from http://www.ancr.nu.

Ferlay J, Colombet M and Bray F. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, CI5plus: IARC CancerBase No. 9 [Internet]. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2018. Available from: http://ci5.iarc.fr.

World Health Organization Cancer Mortality Database, http://www-dep.iarc.fr/WHOdb/WHOdb.htm.

Northern Africa, West and Central Asia

Cancer cases expected to double in this region:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018; 68(6): 394–424.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Map 1 and Figures 1 and 2:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Map 2:
Arnold M, Lam F, Ervik M, Soerjomataram I (2015). Cancer and Obesity: Global burden of cancer attributable to excess weight. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer. Available from: http://gco.iarc.fr/obesity, accessed May 23, 2019.

Oceania

Australia HPV vaccine and cervical cancer screening coverage:
Hall MT, Simms KT, Lew J-B, et al. The projected timeframe until cervical cancer elimination in Australia: a modelling study. The Lancet Public Health. 2019;4: e19-e27.

Text:
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018; 68(6): 394–424.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Map and Figures 1–3:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Cancer Survival

Survival from childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia:
Allemani C, Matsuda T, Di Carlo V, et al., for the CONCORD Working Group. Global surveillance of trends in cancer survival 2000–14 (CONCORD-3): analysis of individual records for 37 513 025 patients diagnosed with one of 18 cancers from 322 population-based registries in 71 countries. Lancet. 2018 Mar 17;391(10125):1023–1075.

Access creates progress:
ibid.

Allemani C, Weir HK, Carreira H, et al. Global surveillance of cancer survival 1995–2009: analysis of individual data for 25,676,887 patients from 279 population-based registries in 67 countries (CONCORD-2). Lancet. 2015;385: 977–1010.

Text:
Allemani C, Matsuda T, Di Carlo V, et al., for the CONCORD Working Group. Global surveillance of trends in cancer survival 2000–14 (CONCORD-3): analysis of individual records for 37 513 025 patients diagnosed with one of 18 cancers from 322 population-based registries in 71 countries. Lancet. 2018 Mar 17;391(10125):1023–1075.

SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics [Internet]. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. Available from https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/.

Joko-Fru WY, Miranda-Filho A, Soerjomataram I, et al. Breast cancer survival in sub-Saharan Africa by age, stage at diagnosis and Human Development Index (HDI): A population-based registry study. Int J Cancer. 2019. doi: 10.1002/ijc.32406 CC license BY-NC 4.0

Map:
Data quality varies according to cancer site and is typically better for more common cancer sites. Data quality determination in the map is based on breast cancer data.

Allemani C, Matsuda T, Di Carlo V, et al., for the CONCORD Working Group. Global surveillance of trends in cancer survival 2000–14 (CONCORD-3): analysis of individual records for 37 513 025 patients diagnosed with one of 18 cancers from 322 population-based registries in 71 countries. Lancet. 2018 Mar 17;391(10125):1023–1075. Licence CC BY 4.0

Additional data provided by the SURVCAN project: http://survival.iarc.fr/Survcan/en/

Figure 1 and 4:
Adapted from Allemani C, Matsuda T, Di Carlo V, et al., for the CONCORD Working Group. Global surveillance of trends in cancer survival 2000–14 (CONCORD-3): analysis of individual records for 37 513 025 patients diagnosed with one of 18 cancers from 322 population-based registries in 71 countries. Lancet. 2018 Mar 17;391(10125):1023–1075. Licence CC BY 4.0

Figure 2:
Joko-Fru WY, Miranda-Filho A, Soerjomataram I, et al. Breast cancer survival in sub-Saharan Africa by age, stage at diagnosis and Human Development Index (HDI): A population-based registry study. Int J Cancer. 2019. doi: 10.1002/ijc.32406 CC license BY-NC 4.0

Figure 3:
SEER*Explorer: An interactive website for SEER cancer statistics [Internet]. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. Available from https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/.

Cancer Survivorship

Quote:
Mullan F. Seasons of survival: Reflections of a physician with cancer. N Engl J Med. 1985;313(4):270–3.

Text:
Chan RJ, Yates P, Li Q, et al., for the STEP study collaborators. Oncology practitioners’ perspectives and practice patterns of post-treatment cancer survivorship care in the Asia-Pacific region. BMC Cancer. 2017 Nov 6; 17(1):715.

Fitzmaurice C, Akinyemiju TF, Al Lami FH, et al., for the Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration. Global, regional, and national cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life-years for 29 cancer groups, 1990 to 2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. JAMA Oncol. 2018 Nov 1;4(11):1553–1568.

Hewitt M, Greenfield S, Stovall E (eds.). Committee on Cancer Survivorship: Improving Care and Quality of Life. From Cancer Patient to Cancer Survivor: Lost in Transition. National Cancer Policy Board. Institute of Medicine and National Research Council of the National Academies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2006.

Ganz PA. Survivorship: adult cancer survivors. Prim Care. 2009;36(4):721–41.

Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Molassiotis A, Yates P, Li Q, et al., for the STEP study collaborators. Mapping unmet supportive care needs, quality-of-life perceptions and current symptoms in cancer survivors across the Asia-Pacific region: results from the International STEP Study. Ann Oncol. 2017 Oct 1; 28(10):2552–2558.

Rowland JH. Cancer survivorship: new challenge in cancer medicine. In: Bast Jr RC. Croce CM, Hait WN, et al., (eds.). Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine 9th Edition (pp. 909 – 916). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017.

Rowland JH, Bellizzi KM. Cancer survivorship issues: life after treatment and implications for an aging population. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(24): 2662–2668.

Rowland JH, Kent EE, Forsythe LP, et al. Cancer survivorship research in Europe and the United States: Where have we been, where are we going, and what can we learn from each other? Cancer. 2013;119 (Suppl 11):2094–2108.

Surbone A, Annunziata MA, Santoro A, Tirelli U, Tralongo P. Cancer patients and survivors: changing words or changing culture? Ann Oncol. 2013;24(10):2468–71.

Torre LA, Bray F, Siegel RL, Ferlay J, Lortet-Tieulent J, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2015;65(2):87–108.

Zheng Z, Han X, Guy GP Jr, Li C, Banegas MP, Ekwueme DU, Davidoff AJ, Jemal A, Yabroff KR. Medical financial hardship among cancer survivors in the US. Cancer. 2019; Jan 21. doi:10.1002/cncr.31913.

Map 1:
Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, et al. Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Today. Lyon, France: IARC. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today.

Map 2:
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). GBD Compare Data Visualization. Seattle, WA: IHME, University of Washington, 2018. Available from http://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare.

Figure 1:
Poor physical health is physical health score < 1 SD below U.S. population mean as assessed using the PROMIS Global Health Scale; Poor mental health is mental health score < 1 SD below U.S. population mean; Poor physical and mental health is physical and mental health-related quality of life < 1 SD below U.S. population mean.

Weaver KE, Forsythe LP, Reeve BB, et al. Mental and Physical Health–Related Quality of Life among U.S. Cancer Survivors: Population Estimates from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2012;21(11):2108.

Figure 2:
Breast: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng101/chapter/Recommendations#followup
Colorectal: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg131/chapter/1-Recommendations#ongoing-care-and-support
Lung: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg121/chapter/1-Guidance#follow-up-and-patient-perspectives